Despite the many environmental benefits of the PLDL program, there were a number of notable shortcomings. Firstly, crop-switching offset some of the original beneficial effects, because farmers initially lacked the necessary knowledge regarding management of the new crop, which resulted in increases in fertilizer use to cultivate the new crops in some areas (Fu, 2017; Zheng, 2013). Furthermore, despite promises of fair compensation for farmers, critics have indicated that farmers were not compensated enough for the land change; some farmers saw their net income decrease by 11% annually between 2006 and 2014 (Liu et al., 2018; Zheng et al., 2013).

Outcomes

In 2003, a PLDL pilot project was implemented on 2,347 hectares of catchment area in Beijing province, saving approximately 4 million cubic meters of water annually. In 2006, a second PLDL project was implemented on 7,041 hectares of paddy land within the Hei River watershed, increasing water flow in the Hei River by 9 million cubic meters in a 10-month period. That same year, the Beijing City Government and Hebei Province Government signed the "Strengthening Economic and Social Development Cooperation Memorandum" and committed to carrying out PLDL projects on an additional 6,867 hectares of land within the three big watershed districts feeding the Miyun Reservoir (TNC, 2016). Both governments also committed to the adequate compensation of farmers throughout (TNC, 2016).

The Municipality of Beijing earmarked 100 million RMB (approximately 14 million USD) for water resources and environmental management between 2005 and 2010 (Fu, 2017; Bennet, 2009). As such, the megacity committed to financing the PLDL projects in local watersheds that feed its water supply. Payments from Beijing ensured that farmers participating in PLDL projects would have safeguarded incomes, and local governments claimed that residents would make a minor profit by farming subsidized crops. Farmers who agreed to transition their rice paddies into dry farming land received approximately 6,750 RMB (approximately 975 USD) per hectare per year from the Beijing municipality (Jing, 2008; Fu, 2017). In 2008, the payments were increased to 8,250 RMB (approximately 1,192 USD) per hectare per year (Fu, 2017).

The program's implementation period was between 2006 and 2020, although the project has since continued and transitioned into part of the national strategy for multi-province conservation efforts (Fu, 2017). The PLDL program generated several positive outcomes in terms of improved water quantity and quality, which exceeded the costs of reduced agricultural output. Furthermore, the land-use change resulting from the PLDL reduced fertilizer leaching significantly, reducing total downstream nitrogen and phosphorus levels by 28% and 89%, respectively (Liu et al., 2018). Studies by The Nature Conservancy indicated that both downstream beneficiaries and upstream providers benefitted from the program (TNC, 2016). The PLDL project increased the total water supply by 18.2 million cubic meters of water per year. It reduced the total phosphorus and nitrogen loads in the reservoir by 10.36 and 4.34 tonnes, respectively (TNC, 2016). Furthermore, all 6,867 hectares of rice paddies upstream of the Miyun Reservoir were successfully converted to dryland farming areas, decreasing irrigation by 51.5-66.4 million cubic meters per year (Fu, 2017; Jing, 2008).

Though not without its shortcomings, the PLDL program was, ultimately, able to successfully increase water supply and promote conservation in one of Beijing's most important water reservoirs. Initially, the program was planned to run from 2006 to 2010. Its demonstrated success in improving water quality and quantity ended up ensuring its longevity. Thereafter, similar paddyland to dryland conversion programs were included in future regional management plans for shared water resources, primarily between Beijing and Hebei Province (Fu, 2017; Bennet, 2009; Jing, 2008).