Holistic Water Management for Enhanced Service
Summary
In the 1980s, Istanbul developed a new water management model: municipally-run water systems with budgets independent from national government spending. What was initially a pilot project turned into the current water and sewage administration in Istanbul: İSKİ.
In the 1930s, Istanbul moved away from a water system managed by private companies and developed the Istanbul Water Authority (İSKİ). The transition, which occurred under Ataturk's administration, was deemed necessary because the private companies (Terkos and Kadikoy-Uskudar) were not functioning well enough to sustain the city's growing population, and citizens regularly complained of inadequate service. The transition toward a centrally-managed water resource agency led to multiple infrastructural advancements, including reinforcing transmission lines, replacing steam engines with electric pumps, and increasing the system's capacity. However, as Istanbul continued to grow, İSKİ was incapable of managing and adapting to this growth, thereby signaling the need for a broader and more integrated water authority. In 1981, water and sanitation services merged into one integrated authority, the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ) (İSKİ, n.d.).
Intervention
İSKİ was first founded in 1981 under the Governorate of Istanbul by Law no. 2650, then reaffirmed by a subsidiary of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality by Law no. 3009 in 1984. İSKİ is a public utility of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality with a budget that is independent of national funding (İSKİ, n.d.). In 2004, İSKİ's jurisdiction increased to cover the entirety of Istanbul Province, amounting to a landmass of more than 5,000 km2 spanning two continents and serving more than 15 million people (İSKİ, n.d.).
As Istanbul's population increased rapidly, it became clear that the megacity needed a greater overall authority to manage its water resources (World Bank, 2016). Water shortages and waste management issues became commonplace as the city expanded, resulting in polluted water throughout much of the city (Ozturk & Altay, 2015; World Bank, 2016). Additionally, Istanbul's ancient infrastructure could not keep pace with the city's growth rate to adequately meet demand as the population grew by over 3 million people in 30 years (between the 1950s and 1980s) (Ozturk & Altay, 2015).
İSKİ was implemented as a means of streamlining holistic water management for Istanbul. The administration became the sole actor in managing the megacity's water supply, ensuring wastewater and storm-water drainage, and protecting surface and groundwater supplies from contamination. İSKİ is also authorized to act on any legal measures necessary to enforce source-water protection (Ozturk & Altay, 2015; World Bank, 2016).
Although İSKİ has many responsibilities, its main duties as a management organization relate to water supply (planning, construction, and operation); wastewater and storm-water drainage (planning, construction, and operation); and taking all necessary technical, administrative and legal recourse to protect surface water (e.g., seas, lakes, and rivers) and groundwater sources against pollution and contamination (Ozturk & Altay, 2015).
Challenges
Despite these successes, İSKİ's water and sanitation services have also faced some challenges, including poor-tasting water due to deteriorated pipelines (van Leeuwen and Sjerps, 2016). Furthermore, Istanbul's continued growth begs the question: will one single water management authority continue to be appropriate for a population rapidly surpassing 15 million people.
Outcomes
İSKİ has remained active as Istanbul's sole water manager since the 1980s. Water sales comprise the majority of the administration's income. In order to receive İSKİ's services, water and wastewater subscription through a formal contract with SK is required, although many homes have a water tank in case of water shortages (İSKİ, n.d.; İSKİ, 2018). Water consumption is identified and measured via mechanical or card meters, and contracts are determined per consumer usage (e.g., household, industry, office, etc.). At present, the water utility has 6 million active subscriptions, which service approximately 15 million people across Istanbul's entire 5,000 km2 area (İSKİ, n.d.; İSKİ, 2018).
İSKİ uses modern Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) technology to monitor potable water supply and distribution. It uses İSKİ Infrastructure Data System (İSKİABS) GIS-based spatial modeling technology to keep track of and monitor all available water sources (İSKİ, n.d.). The utility presently has over 6,000 staff, 18 potable water treatment plants, and 80 wastewater treatment plants at its disposal (İSKİ, n.d.). The legislation governing İSKİ's formation and operations (SK Law no. 2056) did more than ensure the autonomy of water and sanitation services in Istanbul. The law also encouraged the utility to seek financing for large-scale water and sanitation investments through international loans under the Treasury Guarantee Scheme, which allowed the city of Istanbul and İSKİ a higher degree of independence from the national government when implementing costly infrastructure projects (World Bank, 2016). Despite its relative independence, İSKİ operates under the general legislative framework as defined by the central Turkish government and complies with specific regulations set forth by the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization (MoEU), the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs (MoFWA), and the Ministry of Health (MoH). While Istanbul's water utility complies with the nationally defined regulations, İSKİ also occasionally develops and operates under regulations that are unique to Istanbul (İSKİ, 2018; World Bank, 2016).
İSKİ's development has increased the overall effectiveness of water management in Istanbul and has encouraged international funding and collaboration in the megacity. Specifically, the utility has improved overall wastewater management capacity significantly, as rates of wastewater treatment skyrocketed from 9% in 1993 to 95% treatment in 2004 (van Leeuwen and Sjerps, 2016). Furthermore, SK has created over 18,000 km of water pipelines and has improved water sources and access for 99% of people living in rural or peri-urban areas in Istanbul Province (van Leeuwen and Sjerps, 2016). The utility also led the Golden Horn rehabilitation project in 1994 in partnership with Istanbul municipality to improve water quality in the city's most famous estuary (van Leeuwen and Sjerps, 2016).
Ultimately, İSKİ continues to service Istanbul's vast population today. The utility has developed new wastewater treatment facilities, created educational programs for children on water supply and systems, and designated conservation zones for water resources (that protect both water supply as well as the surrounding environment) (Guven et al., 2020; İSKİ, n.d.; İSKİ, 2018). Although future sustainability remains a concern for Istanbul and its water authority, much as it does for other megacities globally, İSKİ's provision of regular water and sanitation services to Istanbul's 15 million inhabitants remains a successful example of holistic, localized water resource management.
References
Holistic Water Management for Enhanced Service
Summary
In the 1980s, Istanbul developed a new water management model: municipally-run water systems with budgets independent from national government spending. What was initially a pilot project turned into the current water and sewage administration in Istanbul: İSKİ.
In the 1930s, Istanbul moved away from a water system managed by private companies and developed the Istanbul Water Authority (İSKİ). The transition, which occurred under Ataturk's administration, was deemed necessary because the private companies (Terkos and Kadikoy-Uskudar) were not functioning well enough to sustain the city's growing population, and citizens regularly complained of inadequate service. The transition toward a centrally-managed water resource agency led to multiple infrastructural advancements, including reinforcing transmission lines, replacing steam engines with electric pumps, and increasing the system's capacity. However, as Istanbul continued to grow, İSKİ was incapable of managing and adapting to this growth, thereby signaling the need for a broader and more integrated water authority. In 1981, water and sanitation services merged into one integrated authority, the Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration (İSKİ) (İSKİ, n.d.).
Issue
Intervention
İSKİ was first founded in 1981 under the Governorate of Istanbul by Law no. 2650, then reaffirmed by a subsidiary of Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality by Law no. 3009 in 1984. İSKİ is a public utility of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality with a budget that is independent of national funding (İSKİ, n.d.). In 2004, İSKİ's jurisdiction increased to cover the entirety of Istanbul Province, amounting to a landmass of more than 5,000 km2 spanning two continents and serving more than 15 million people (İSKİ, n.d.).
As Istanbul's population increased rapidly, it became clear that the megacity needed a greater overall authority to manage its water resources (World Bank, 2016). Water shortages and waste management issues became commonplace as the city expanded, resulting in polluted water throughout much of the city (Ozturk & Altay, 2015; World Bank, 2016). Additionally, Istanbul's ancient infrastructure could not keep pace with the city's growth rate to adequately meet demand as the population grew by over 3 million people in 30 years (between the 1950s and 1980s) (Ozturk & Altay, 2015).
İSKİ was implemented as a means of streamlining holistic water management for Istanbul. The administration became the sole actor in managing the megacity's water supply, ensuring wastewater and storm-water drainage, and protecting surface and groundwater supplies from contamination. İSKİ is also authorized to act on any legal measures necessary to enforce source-water protection (Ozturk & Altay, 2015; World Bank, 2016).
Although İSKİ has many responsibilities, its main duties as a management organization relate to water supply (planning, construction, and operation); wastewater and storm-water drainage (planning, construction, and operation); and taking all necessary technical, administrative and legal recourse to protect surface water (e.g., seas, lakes, and rivers) and groundwater sources against pollution and contamination (Ozturk & Altay, 2015).
Challenges
Despite these successes, İSKİ's water and sanitation services have also faced some challenges, including poor-tasting water due to deteriorated pipelines (van Leeuwen and Sjerps, 2016). Furthermore, Istanbul's continued growth begs the question: will one single water management authority continue to be appropriate for a population rapidly surpassing 15 million people.
Outcomes
İSKİ has remained active as Istanbul's sole water manager since the 1980s. Water sales comprise the majority of the administration's income. In order to receive İSKİ's services, water and wastewater subscription through a formal contract with SK is required, although many homes have a water tank in case of water shortages (İSKİ, n.d.; İSKİ, 2018). Water consumption is identified and measured via mechanical or card meters, and contracts are determined per consumer usage (e.g., household, industry, office, etc.). At present, the water utility has 6 million active subscriptions, which service approximately 15 million people across Istanbul's entire 5,000 km2 area (İSKİ, n.d.; İSKİ, 2018).
İSKİ uses modern Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) technology to monitor potable water supply and distribution. It uses İSKİ Infrastructure Data System (İSKİABS) GIS-based spatial modeling technology to keep track of and monitor all available water sources (İSKİ, n.d.). The utility presently has over 6,000 staff, 18 potable water treatment plants, and 80 wastewater treatment plants at its disposal (İSKİ, n.d.). The legislation governing İSKİ's formation and operations (SK Law no. 2056) did more than ensure the autonomy of water and sanitation services in Istanbul. The law also encouraged the utility to seek financing for large-scale water and sanitation investments through international loans under the Treasury Guarantee Scheme, which allowed the city of Istanbul and İSKİ a higher degree of independence from the national government when implementing costly infrastructure projects (World Bank, 2016). Despite its relative independence, İSKİ operates under the general legislative framework as defined by the central Turkish government and complies with specific regulations set forth by the Ministry of Environment and Urbanization (MoEU), the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs (MoFWA), and the Ministry of Health (MoH). While Istanbul's water utility complies with the nationally defined regulations, İSKİ also occasionally develops and operates under regulations that are unique to Istanbul (İSKİ, 2018; World Bank, 2016).
İSKİ's development has increased the overall effectiveness of water management in Istanbul and has encouraged international funding and collaboration in the megacity. Specifically, the utility has improved overall wastewater management capacity significantly, as rates of wastewater treatment skyrocketed from 9% in 1993 to 95% treatment in 2004 (van Leeuwen and Sjerps, 2016). Furthermore, SK has created over 18,000 km of water pipelines and has improved water sources and access for 99% of people living in rural or peri-urban areas in Istanbul Province (van Leeuwen and Sjerps, 2016). The utility also led the Golden Horn rehabilitation project in 1994 in partnership with Istanbul municipality to improve water quality in the city's most famous estuary (van Leeuwen and Sjerps, 2016).
Ultimately, İSKİ continues to service Istanbul's vast population today. The utility has developed new wastewater treatment facilities, created educational programs for children on water supply and systems, and designated conservation zones for water resources (that protect both water supply as well as the surrounding environment) (Guven et al., 2020; İSKİ, n.d.; İSKİ, 2018). Although future sustainability remains a concern for Istanbul and its water authority, much as it does for other megacities globally, İSKİ's provision of regular water and sanitation services to Istanbul's 15 million inhabitants remains a successful example of holistic, localized water resource management.
Issues |
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Water Governance and Policy |
Solutions |
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Governance & Accountability |
References
Guven, H., Fakioglu, M., Sinop, I., & Ozturk, I. (2020). Retrofitting of Five Preliminary Wastewater Treatment Plants in Istanbul (Turkey) to High-Rate Activated Sludge System and/or Post Oxidation. Ozone: Science & Engineering, 42(3), 255–266. https://doi.org/10.1080/01919512.2019.1654362
İSKİ. (n.d.). İSKİ - About İSKİ. Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration. Retrieved August 25, 2020, from https://www.iski.istanbul/web/en-US/kurumsal/iski-hakkinda
İSKİ. (2018). 2018 Annual Report [Annual Report]. Istanbul Water and Sewerage Administration. https://www.iski.gov.tr/web/assets/SayfalarDocs/Annual%20Report/2018%20FAAL%C4%B0YET%20RAPORU%20-%203%20EYL%C3%9CL.pdf
Kibaroglu, A., & Baskan, A. (2011). Turkey’s Water Policy Framework. In A. Kramer, A. Kibaroglu, & W. Scheumann (Eds.), Turkey’s Water Policy: National Frameworks and International Cooperation (pp. 3–25). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-19636-2_1
Öztürk, D. İ., & Altay, D. D. A. (2015). Water and Wastewater Management in Istanbul. 33.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286354519_WATER_AND_WASTEWATER_MANAGEMENT_IN_ISTANBUL
The World Bank. (2016). Republic of Turkey: Sustainable Urban Water Supply and Sanitation (Updated Report No. 110547-TR). The World Bank. Retrieved August 25, 2020, from http://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/136911483599565083/pdf/P161143-01-04-2017-1483543399744.pdf
van Leeuwen, K., & Sjerps, R. (2016). Istanbul: The challenges of integrated water resources management in Europa’s megacity. Environment, Development, and Sustainability, 18(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-015-9636-z