Groundwater - Level Monitoring Using Citizen Science and Mobile Phones
Summary
Increased population growth and urbanization in the Kathmandu Valley has resulted in extensive stress on water resources, contributing to a significant gap between the water demand and supply. It is common in Bhaktapur, a city approximately 13km from Kathmandu, as well as in the broader Kathmandu Valley, to rely on groundwater sources to supplement the irregular and intermittent municipal water supply.
Smartphones For Water Nepal (S4W-Nepal) aims to resolve the data and information gaps in groundwater levels, as well as in other hydrological parameters such as rainfall, stream level and discharge, by operating a citizen science initiative that allows citizen scientists to measure and record groundwater levels in selected spatially distributed wells once a month and submit the information via applications called Open Data Kit (ODK) Collect (for Android users) and Enketo (for iOS users) to a centralized database for public use. The initiative is cost-effective and scalable and, to date, has engaged 600+ citizen scientists, however, participant motivation continues to be a consideration when developing a similar project.
Increased population growth and urbanization in the Kathmandu Valley has led to extensive stress and degradation of water resources and associated ecosystems, particularly groundwater resources (S4W, n.d.). There is a gap between the water supply and demand, with the Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) providing 115M liters per day in the wet season and 69M liters per day in the dry season, which falls short of the current demand of 370M liters per day (Prajapati et al., 2021). In light of the irregular and intermittent municipal water supply, residents supplement their supply with groundwater from both deep and shallow aquifers via traditional stone spouts, private dug wells and tube wells (Prajapati et al., 2021). However, there is limited reliable scientific information on the distribution, discharge and availability of shallow groundwater wells, groundwater use scenarios and the trend of shallow groundwater-level fluctuations in a centralized location, and regular scientific monitoring has yet to be carried out due to government financial and human resource constraints (Prajapati et al., 2021).
Intervention
To address the data and information gaps, Smartphones For Water Nepal (S4W-Nepal) launched its first project in 2016 in the Kathmandu Valley. S4W-Nepal is a non-profit research-based sister organization of the Smartphones For Water (S4W), a US-based non-profit organization that was founded in 2017 (S4W-Nepal, n.d.). S4W-Nepal uses citizen science for monitoring groundwater, daily rainfall and monthly surface water discharge in the Kathmandu Valley through mobile technology, and mobilizing young researchers (undergraduate, graduate students and community members) to develop a network of private and public water wells to monitor groundwater levels (Prajapati et al., 2021). This approach is not only realistic, given the limited technical and financial resources available for automated measurements, it is cost-effective and provides a basis for long-term groundwater-level monitoring (Prajapati et al., 2021).
Recruitment of citizen scientists uses various methods, including leveraging personal relationships, posts on social media, outreach programs at schools/college and random website visits (Prajapati et al., 2021). S4W-Nepal places a strong emphasis on the educational training of citizen scientists and school partners (S4W, n.d.), and, as such, trainings on groundwater-level measurement and the use of ODK are often conducted (Prajapati et al., 2021).
Citizen scientists are responsible for taking water level measurements on the 15th of the month before the withdrawal of water and dates, times and geo-coordinates are recorded using Open Data Kit (ODK) Collect (for Android users) and Enketo (for iOS users) to upload data to a centralized database via cellular data or Wi-Fi. Citizen scientists use a measuring tape and take a photo of the tape and reference point, and the measurement is saved locally to the smartphone's memory and sent to the S4W-Nepal ODK Aggregate server running on the Google App Engine (Prajapati et al., 2021). Each recorded measurement is reviewed by S4W-Nepal staff for quality control and assurance (Prajapati et al., 2021). Data collected is publicly-available and a web-based portal is under development, which will allow for free downloads to improve the efficiency of dissemination (Prajapati et al., 2021; S4W, n.d.).
This groundwater-level monitoring program is more cost effective than traditional monitoring methods, and are more rapidly scalable. At the onset, S4W-Nepal allocated approximately 480 staff hours (2 staff working 8 hours/day for 30 days) to recruit and train 45 citizen scientists and configure the monitoring network. All citizen scientists are provided with a measuring tape (valued at USD 3.50 each). S4W also provided a small per observation transfer (USD 1) to their mobile phone account. After the beginning of data collection, S4W-Nepal allocates approximately 24 hours monthly to follow up with citizen scientists for regular measurements by voice call, SMS and field visit if necessary (approximately USD 11 per month) (Prajapati et al., 2021). Annual workshops to disseminate findings to citizen scientists cost approximately USD 300 per event (Prajapati et al., 2021). When considering associated costs, the initial configuration cost per measurement and operational cost per measurement were calculated to be USD 14.50 and USD 2.50, respectively. Comparatively, the equipment for an automated approach (i.e., pressure transducer) for a single monitoring site would cost approximately USD 900 (Prajapati et al., 2021).
Challenges
The use of citizen scientists is both a benefit and a challenge: the recruitment strategy as well as the motivation of participants can either enhance or hinder a given program. First, the S4W-Nepal program was largely conducted in urban areas using post-secondary students and/or community members. The data generation approach may not be as effective in rural areas with a limited student population and relatively low scientific literacy levels (Prajapati et al., 2021). Second, the motivation of citizen scientists is relative: while citizen scientists in Prajapati et al?s (2021) study indicated that they enjoyed the scientific aspect of the monitoring program, some noted that errors with the ODK app or GPS, early morning measurement times, the distance to monitoring wells and/or frequent reminders from measurement from S4W-Nepal were bothersome. Finally, the requirement to have an Android phone to access the application means that if a citizen scientist switches to a non-Android phone, they are no longer able to participate.
Outcomes
S4W-Nepal has engaged 600+ citizen scientists, developed partnerships with over 30 schools in the Kathmandu Valley, and involved dozens of Nepali and foreign undergraduate and graduate students as interns and volunteers. (S4W, n.d.). The benefits of citizen science-based monitoring are well-known in the literature, including engaging and motivating community members to care for local groundwater resources as well as disseminating the collected data to local communities and policy-makers in an understandable format (Prajapati et al., 2021). Particularly for students, the program supports learning on the status of the shallow groundwater table and aims to encourage young people to remain involved (Prajapati et al,. 2021). The participatory approach to groundwater-level monitoring also has been shown to improve political capital in communities (Walker et al., 2021). Findings from a study conducted by Prajapati et al. (2021) found that citizen scientists were submitting consistent measurements at the beginning of the study and during the monsoon season when groundwater fluctuations were more dynamic. During the study period from July 2017 to December 2018, the depth-to-water below the ground surface varied from -0.11m to 11.50m, with a mean of 4.07m. Findings suggest that agricultural land areas had a shallow groundwater level, and that wells in areas for built land use had a depth-to-water of more than 6m throughout the study period (Prajapati et al, 2021).
References
Groundwater - Level Monitoring Using Citizen Science and Mobile Phones
Summary
Increased population growth and urbanization in the Kathmandu Valley has resulted in extensive stress on water resources, contributing to a significant gap between the water demand and supply. It is common in Bhaktapur, a city approximately 13km from Kathmandu, as well as in the broader Kathmandu Valley, to rely on groundwater sources to supplement the irregular and intermittent municipal water supply.
Smartphones For Water Nepal (S4W-Nepal) aims to resolve the data and information gaps in groundwater levels, as well as in other hydrological parameters such as rainfall, stream level and discharge, by operating a citizen science initiative that allows citizen scientists to measure and record groundwater levels in selected spatially distributed wells once a month and submit the information via applications called Open Data Kit (ODK) Collect (for Android users) and Enketo (for iOS users) to a centralized database for public use. The initiative is cost-effective and scalable and, to date, has engaged 600+ citizen scientists, however, participant motivation continues to be a consideration when developing a similar project.
Increased population growth and urbanization in the Kathmandu Valley has led to extensive stress and degradation of water resources and associated ecosystems, particularly groundwater resources (S4W, n.d.). There is a gap between the water supply and demand, with the Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) providing 115M liters per day in the wet season and 69M liters per day in the dry season, which falls short of the current demand of 370M liters per day (Prajapati et al., 2021). In light of the irregular and intermittent municipal water supply, residents supplement their supply with groundwater from both deep and shallow aquifers via traditional stone spouts, private dug wells and tube wells (Prajapati et al., 2021). However, there is limited reliable scientific information on the distribution, discharge and availability of shallow groundwater wells, groundwater use scenarios and the trend of shallow groundwater-level fluctuations in a centralized location, and regular scientific monitoring has yet to be carried out due to government financial and human resource constraints (Prajapati et al., 2021).
Issue
Intervention
To address the data and information gaps, Smartphones For Water Nepal (S4W-Nepal) launched its first project in 2016 in the Kathmandu Valley. S4W-Nepal is a non-profit research-based sister organization of the Smartphones For Water (S4W), a US-based non-profit organization that was founded in 2017 (S4W-Nepal, n.d.). S4W-Nepal uses citizen science for monitoring groundwater, daily rainfall and monthly surface water discharge in the Kathmandu Valley through mobile technology, and mobilizing young researchers (undergraduate, graduate students and community members) to develop a network of private and public water wells to monitor groundwater levels (Prajapati et al., 2021). This approach is not only realistic, given the limited technical and financial resources available for automated measurements, it is cost-effective and provides a basis for long-term groundwater-level monitoring (Prajapati et al., 2021).
Recruitment of citizen scientists uses various methods, including leveraging personal relationships, posts on social media, outreach programs at schools/college and random website visits (Prajapati et al., 2021). S4W-Nepal places a strong emphasis on the educational training of citizen scientists and school partners (S4W, n.d.), and, as such, trainings on groundwater-level measurement and the use of ODK are often conducted (Prajapati et al., 2021).
Citizen scientists are responsible for taking water level measurements on the 15th of the month before the withdrawal of water and dates, times and geo-coordinates are recorded using Open Data Kit (ODK) Collect (for Android users) and Enketo (for iOS users) to upload data to a centralized database via cellular data or Wi-Fi. Citizen scientists use a measuring tape and take a photo of the tape and reference point, and the measurement is saved locally to the smartphone's memory and sent to the S4W-Nepal ODK Aggregate server running on the Google App Engine (Prajapati et al., 2021). Each recorded measurement is reviewed by S4W-Nepal staff for quality control and assurance (Prajapati et al., 2021). Data collected is publicly-available and a web-based portal is under development, which will allow for free downloads to improve the efficiency of dissemination (Prajapati et al., 2021; S4W, n.d.).
This groundwater-level monitoring program is more cost effective than traditional monitoring methods, and are more rapidly scalable. At the onset, S4W-Nepal allocated approximately 480 staff hours (2 staff working 8 hours/day for 30 days) to recruit and train 45 citizen scientists and configure the monitoring network. All citizen scientists are provided with a measuring tape (valued at USD 3.50 each). S4W also provided a small per observation transfer (USD 1) to their mobile phone account. After the beginning of data collection, S4W-Nepal allocates approximately 24 hours monthly to follow up with citizen scientists for regular measurements by voice call, SMS and field visit if necessary (approximately USD 11 per month) (Prajapati et al., 2021). Annual workshops to disseminate findings to citizen scientists cost approximately USD 300 per event (Prajapati et al., 2021). When considering associated costs, the initial configuration cost per measurement and operational cost per measurement were calculated to be USD 14.50 and USD 2.50, respectively. Comparatively, the equipment for an automated approach (i.e., pressure transducer) for a single monitoring site would cost approximately USD 900 (Prajapati et al., 2021).
Challenges
The use of citizen scientists is both a benefit and a challenge: the recruitment strategy as well as the motivation of participants can either enhance or hinder a given program. First, the S4W-Nepal program was largely conducted in urban areas using post-secondary students and/or community members. The data generation approach may not be as effective in rural areas with a limited student population and relatively low scientific literacy levels (Prajapati et al., 2021). Second, the motivation of citizen scientists is relative: while citizen scientists in Prajapati et al?s (2021) study indicated that they enjoyed the scientific aspect of the monitoring program, some noted that errors with the ODK app or GPS, early morning measurement times, the distance to monitoring wells and/or frequent reminders from measurement from S4W-Nepal were bothersome. Finally, the requirement to have an Android phone to access the application means that if a citizen scientist switches to a non-Android phone, they are no longer able to participate.
Outcomes
S4W-Nepal has engaged 600+ citizen scientists, developed partnerships with over 30 schools in the Kathmandu Valley, and involved dozens of Nepali and foreign undergraduate and graduate students as interns and volunteers. (S4W, n.d.). The benefits of citizen science-based monitoring are well-known in the literature, including engaging and motivating community members to care for local groundwater resources as well as disseminating the collected data to local communities and policy-makers in an understandable format (Prajapati et al., 2021). Particularly for students, the program supports learning on the status of the shallow groundwater table and aims to encourage young people to remain involved (Prajapati et al,. 2021). The participatory approach to groundwater-level monitoring also has been shown to improve political capital in communities (Walker et al., 2021). Findings from a study conducted by Prajapati et al. (2021) found that citizen scientists were submitting consistent measurements at the beginning of the study and during the monsoon season when groundwater fluctuations were more dynamic. During the study period from July 2017 to December 2018, the depth-to-water below the ground surface varied from -0.11m to 11.50m, with a mean of 4.07m. Findings suggest that agricultural land areas had a shallow groundwater level, and that wells in areas for built land use had a depth-to-water of more than 6m throughout the study period (Prajapati et al, 2021).
Issues |
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Water Scarcity and Access |
Solutions |
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Water Data, Monitoring & ICT Solutions |
References
Prajapati, R., Talchabhadel, R., Thapa, B. R., Upadhyay, S., Thapa, A. B., Ertis, B., & Davids, J. C. (2021). Measuring the unseen: Mobilizing citizen scientists to monitor groundwater in Nepal. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment , 193 (9). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09265-x
S4W-Nepal . SmartPhones4Water. (n.d.). Retrieved June 26, 2022, from https://smartphones4water.org/projects/nepal/
Walker, D. W., Tani, M., Gyawali, N., Chapagain, P. S., Davids, J. C., Ghimire, A., Maharjan, M., Parajuli, B. P., Prajapati, R., Regmi, S., Shah, R. K., Shakya, P., & Upadhyay, S. (2021). Citizen Science Water Projects in Nepal: Participant Motivations And the Impacts of Involvement . Water Alternatives. Retrieved June 26, 2022, from https://edepot.wur.nl/563877