Kathmandu, Nepal

Kathmandu is the capital and primate city in Nepal. Home to approximately one million people, Kathmandu is located in the Kathmandu Valley at an elevation of 1,400m (World Population Review, 2021). While Nepal is one of the least urbanized countries in the world, it is witnessing rapid urbanization in its major cities, particularly in Kathmandu (Bhushal, 2021). Despite Nepal being rich in water resources, there is limited water flowing through taps in Kathmandu. The city faces water security challenges predominantly stemming from rapid urbanization (Nepal et al., 2019). 

The Kathmandu Valley has been suffering from a shortage of water, especially drinking water, since at least the 1980s, and the situation has been progressively worsening (Nepal et al., 2019). Groundwater is the major source of water in Kathmandu, with approximately 70% of households relying on water sourced from the valley (Bhushal, 2021). Another 15% are dependent on private water tankers, and the remainder rely on private groundwater pumping wells, dug wells, dhunge dharas and  bottled water (Thapa et al., 2018). The current water supply (103 million liters per day) is insufficient to meet the demand (430 million liters per day) (Shrestha & Seddon, 2020). City officials are attempting to implement large-scale infrastructure projects to close the deficit.