Bangkok, Thailand

Bangkok, Thailand, a bustling city with a population surpassing 8 million, faces intricate water challenges arising from rapid urbanization and strained water resources. The city, located in a delta region, contends with the impacts of climate change, including increased flooding and salinity intrusion. Bangkok experiences high water stress, compounded by the demand from various sectors and the reliance on the Chao Phraya River for water supply. Notably, the city implements a "sponge city" approach, incorporating green infrastructure and nature-based solutions to enhance water resilience. The government's two-year mayoral cycles and specific mandates for water management underscore the importance of political governance in addressing water-related issues. Bangkok's commitment to innovative wastewater treatment systems and its historical infrastructure showcase a multifaceted approach to ensuring sustainable water practices in the face of urbanization pressures.

Bangkok, Thailand, commonly referred to as the "City of Angels," is a sprawling metropolis situated in the delta region approximately 40 kilometers from the Gulf of Thailand. As of the latest census data in 2022, the city is home to over 8 million residents, experiencing a significant influx due to rural-urban migration and economic opportunities. This rapid population growth, at a rate of 2.5% annually (MWA, 2019), has spurred challenges in urban development and placed immense pressure on water resources. The city sources its raw water from 2 main rivers, the Chao Phraya River and the Mae Klong River. The city has 4 major water treatment plants (WTP), with a total production capacity of roughly 6.27 million cubic meters per day (MWA, 2019). The Chao Phraya River supplies 3 out of the 4 WTPs, accounting for roughly 74.5% of the city’s water treatment and supply source, whereas the Mae Klong River supplies only 1 of the WTPs accounting for roughly 25.5% of the treatment and supply source (MWA 2013). The Chao Phraya River faces degradation and stress from pollution, contamination, and unauthorized water extraction, resulting in a considerable gap between water supply and demand (The Nation, 2020). The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration currently supplies approximately 230 million liters per day, meeting only 45% of the city's water demand, highlighting the pressing need for sustainable water management solutions. Residents often resort to complementing their supply with groundwater extracted from various aquifers due to intermittent water supply (Bangkok Post, 2020). However, comprehensive scientific data on groundwater quality and quantity remains limited due to governmental constraints on financial and human resources for regular monitoring and assessment (MWA, 2019).

Water Assessment:
Economics/Finance: Bangkok is a vital economic center and hosts a diverse economy with key sectors such as finance, manufacturing, and tourism. Tourism significantly contributes to the city's revenue and local employment (BMA, “City Planning”). Amidst rapid urbanization and population growth, water management emerges as a crucial economic challenge. The city utilizes a progressive water tariff structure, overseen by regulatory bodies. Potential tariff adjustments, estimated at THB 43 (USD 1.36) per 1m 3 , aim to address an annual financial deficit of approximately THB 700 million (USD 22.09 million). Reducing non-revenue water, currently at 30%, is essential for improving the financial viability of water utilities (The Nation, 2020). Thailand secures international funding to support vital infrastructure projects related to water management, notably from organizations like the Japan International Cooperation Agency and the Asian Development Bank (Asian Development Bank, 2021).

Politics/Governance: In Bangkok, the Metropolitan Waterworks Authority (MWA) assumes the responsibility for operating and maintaining water supply services, while the Water and Sewerage Management Committee holds the authority as the asset owner (MWA, 2019). This committee also regulates deep groundwater extraction and water vending activities. The governance framework is governed by the Water Supply and Sewerage Management Act, which delineates the committee's powers in structuring water services, overseeing vendor operations, and managing groundwater licensing (BMA, “City Planning”). The Independent Regulatory Commission, a government entity, oversees water tariffs, functioning under the Water Tariff Fixation Act and its associated regulations (BMA, “City Planning”). Despite facing challenges like a notable rate of non-revenue water, the political will to address water loss management remains relatively low. This may be attributed to recent political changes at the national level, leading to a shift towards federalism, and the ongoing aftermath and recovery from events such as the 2015 earthquake (BMA, “City Planning”).

Ecology/Natural Science: Bangkok faces complex ecological challenges as a result of rapid urbanization and population growth. The city, situated in a delta region, encounters heightened vulnerability to climate change-induced issues such as increased flooding and salinity intrusion (Gluckman, 2019). This environmental stress impacts both water quality and ecosystems. Additionally, the reliance on the Chao Phraya River, a crucial water source for the city, further strains the surrounding natural habitats. Urban expansion has led to habitat loss and fragmentation, affecting biodiversity (Gluckman, 2019). Addressing these ecological concerns requires a holistic approach that integrates green infrastructure and nature-based solutions to mitigate the environmental impact of urban development while promoting the resilience of Bangkok's ecosystems.

Technical Science/Infrastructure: In Bangkok, the city's water infrastructure has undergone significant development to address the increasing demand for water services. Notably, the MWA oversees key initiatives such as the Eastern Bangkok Raw Water Supply Project, which aims to enhance water availability in the region (Gluckman, 2019). The city has also embraced a "sponge city" approach, implementing green infrastructure and nature-based solutions to improve water resilience (Gluckman, 2019). Ongoing projects, such as the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration's initiative to install rain gardens and permeable pavements, showcase the city's commitment to innovative infrastructure solutions (CRCWMC, 2022). To supplement the municipal water supply, Bangkok employs wastewater treatment systems, including the Bang Kae Wastewater Treatment Plant, contributing to sustainable water management. Additionally, The collaboration with international organizations, such as the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), further underscores Bangkok's dedication to leveraging external expertise for comprehensive water infrastructure development and sustainability (BMA, “City Planning”).

Social Science: In Bangkok, the government emphasizes improving the quality of life for citizens and reducing poverty, focusing on enhancing water supply and sewerage systems, and aligning with broader social development policies (BWA, 2019). The urban landscape is evolving, with the population in Bangkok steadily rising. Currently comprising 66.8% of the total population, the urban demographic is expected to further increase, reflecting the ongoing trend of rural-urban migration (Gluckman, 2019). This influx contributes to the complexities of urbanization, placing additional strain on already limited water resources. Bangkok's social scientists and policymakers are integral to developing sustainable strategies that balance the needs of a growing population with the preservation of social and environmental well-being (BWA, 2019)